Take one of the areas of astronomy, optics, or the physics of motion. Give an overview of Newton’s theories in this area and explain how they are advances over what came before.

Topic: Take one of the areas of astronomy, optics, or the physics of motion. Give an overview of Newton’s theories in this area and explain how they are advances over what came before.

Lecturer’s Name: Ed Mares

Date: 11st May, 2015

Word Count: 2043

Sir Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) was playing a significant role in the scientific revolution back to the 17th century. In particular, in the area of the physics of motion, his three laws of motion changed the world after he published the book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, which it provided the explanation of the laws of motion in physics, and also it applied to another areas, for example applied the second Newton’s law to astronomy to measure the distance between celestial bodies. However, why Newton’s theories is more important to others, and what Newton improved his theories from others, and how Newton changed the world in physics. This essay will discuss the advantages of Newton’s laws compared with several scientist’s theories before Newton, which included Aristotle (384BC – 322BC), Jean Buridan (1295 – 1358), Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642), René Descartes (1595 – 1650), Edme Mariotte (1620 – 1684), Christiaan Huygens (1629 – 1695) and Christopher Wren (1632 – 1723). And also will discuss the person who against Newton’s theory in the 17th century, which included Robert Hooke (1635 – 1707).

During Newton’s working period, three basic ideas came up and applied to the physics of motion, but not the modern physics. Newton’s Three Laws of Motion was introduced after scientists tested and verified these laws past near three hundred years. According to Mares’s lecture notes (2015), the first law describes the meaning of force – the force can change the state of motion of objects, like remain in static or uniform motion in a straight line. The second law describes the effects of force – under the action of external force, more force acting on object, there will be more acceleration on the object too. The third law describes the nature of force – force is the interaction between objects, they are equal and opposite reaction [1]. And also, Newtons’ Cardle was a very important physical demonstration unit based on the Newton’s oscillations of pendulum theory.

First of all, because Aristotle, the systematic of the physical world was developed. According to Jammer (1957), Aristotle’s concept of force is the motion is natural, spontaneous and forced [2]. In other words, static is the natural state of the object, if there is no force would be no movement. This statement is wrong, if we consider the Newton’s first law of motion. It missed the force could make the object move and stop move. Kosman (1969) shows that Aristotle defined motion is that “motion is the actualization of what potentially is.” [3] This is seems to be the right definition for motion, however, it does not say what motion actually is and where is come from. Kragh & Brush (2001) indicated that Aristotle is the first person who proposed there has the relationship between force and motion [4]. Newton was further developed the Aristotle’s motion theory, he extend the external force can change the state of motion of objects. Another incorrect statement made by Aristotle was that he did not explain if there has been opposite direction force acting on the object, it will go the opposite direction.

In addition, Jean Buridan who was a French priest. In Sicence and Its Times (2001), it shows that he actually changed Aristotle’s statement, which is the object was surrounded by air, and it can keep the object moving [5]. He was correct during that time, because he stated that the weight of the object could change its speed, and air resistance could slow the object down during motion. Trasancos (2014) indicated that Buridan’s statement was help Newton builds his first law of motion [6]. As a result, Newton was improved his motion theory, that an object could change its state of motion by the force acting on the object.

Furthermore, Galileo Galilei was another people play an important role in the scientific revolution. Mares (2015) introduced that the famous drop experiment that he did at the Leaning Tower of Pisa shows that falling movement does not relate with the specific features of the object, like mass, material and size [7]. In other words, whether wood or iron ball they will reach the ground at the same time, if they drop off at the same place and same time. If no air resistance, light and heavy objects falling speed is the same, namely the value of the acceleration of gravity is the same. Cardall & Daunt (n.d.) indicated that in lecture, Galileo most contribution to physics is that the concept of inertia, and it was considered that was “cornerstone” of Newton’s law of motion [8]. As a result, Newton’s first law of motion also called as the law of inertia sometimes. According to Bothun’s lecture notes (n.d.), Galileo was did some improvements from Aristotle’s statement. Firstly, he developed the velocity in the concept of motion in his inclined experiment, which is related to speed and direction. Secondly, the force is the cause of the motion. Thirdly, the object always has a velocity whether is in static or uniform motion. Finally, if the object refuses to change the state of motion, it called inertia. On the other hand, Newton through a series of experiments to verify whether Galileo’s statements true or not. As a consequence, Newton did some improvements from Galileo’s statements. First of all, he changed velocity to acceleration in the cause of force happened. Secondly, change of resistance in velocity is related to the mass of an object. Finally, the motion energy (force energy) is equal to mass times velocity [9].

Moreover, René Descartes was played a significant role during Newton’s Laws of Motion. Slowik (2013) indicated that Newton’s Laws of Motion is “modeled” the Descartes’s three laws of nature [10]. Bain (n.d.) shows that Descartes’ three laws of nature were caused by God. Law one is about everything always keep the same sate, if there has external force acting on it, it will change the state. Law two is about everything always keep moving in a straight line if there has the force keep acting on the object. Law three is about the resistance force acting on an object will change the motion of it [11]. Here is what Descartes say in his book: “I suppose as a second rule that, when one of these bodies pushes another, it cannot give the other any motion except by losing as much of its own at the same time; nor can it take away from the other body’s motion unless its own is increased by as much.” [12] In my opinion, Descartes describe the very important phenomenon in physics, which is object only change its state when another object acting motion on it. Hsieh (2007) also shows that Newton developed a Cartesian theory of motion of physics, and he examines the relationship between power of body and space [13]. In short, the exclusion of power from the body could reduce the space in the body. And this is explain the power (or force) can change the state of body motion, and if there has no force on body, the body does not move. Bennett (2013) indicated that Descartes describe two places that can be moved by the force acting on the body, one is the surface of body, another is the position of one body compare to other bodies [14]. It was related to the Newton’s second law and the third law, if we consider the force acting on the object, and the force between two objects.

Edme Mariotte described the result of oscillations of the pendulum after he did the pendulum experiment, which was Newton use the result developed his Newton’s Cardle after years later (Cross, 2012). He was developed pendulum experiment to clarify that heavy objects are falling toward the centre (Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 2008) [15]. The Newton’s pendulum experiment is about when the most on the right hand side of the ball swing collision of closely arranged other four balls, only the most on left hand side of the ball will be ejected. And also, the article also shows that Mariotte published a book called Traité de la percussion ou choc des corps in 1673, and give the four definitions of “inelastic body”, “elastic body”, “relative velocity” and “suppositions” corresponding to following statements: (1) the law of inertia in physics; (2) there has relationship between the speed of falling objects and the height of falling place according to Galileo’s theory; (3) the falling speed is related to the path during the falling; and (4) small oscillations happened during the tautochronism of pendulums [15]. Cross (2012) indicated that Newton’s Cradle was announced after Newton repeated the Mariotte’s collision of pendulum experiment, but Newton further discussed the influence of air resistance and ways to improve it, and also he corrected the experimental results [16].

Christiaan Huygens was another person who gives some idea to Newton on the theory of collision of the pendulum. Blackwell & Huygen (1977) shows that Huygens have two hypothesises when he doing the collision of pendulum experiment – (1) any objects will move in straight line with the same speed if it in motion, but it will stopped if there has a force against it; (2) two hard objects will rebounding if they have the same speed and opposite move direction with other one [17]. One article issued by Rice University (2011) shows that Huygens agreed Descartes statements about objects close to each other with the same velocities, and both Descartes and Huygens influenced Newton future statement about the law of conservation of momentum [18]. In addition, Newton was established the law about the quantity of motion, which it takes him to further developed an idea about momentum based on his three laws of motion.

Same as Huygens, Christopher Wren also did the collision of pendulum experiment. Dahmen (2014) indicated that Newton was “inspired” on the earlier Mariotte and Wren experiments, he was more interesting on the momentum transfer between the colliding pendulums during the experiment [19]. Elmes (1852) shows that Wren through various experiments to verify his hypothesis, which he through mechanics to studies subjects in “elastic collisions” and “pendulum motions” [20]. Newton (1687) in his book said about Wren and Huygens theories is “By the theory of Wren and Huygens, bodies absolutely hard return one from another with the same velocity with which they meet.” [21] According to Newton’s third law of motion as I talked before, there has been a force exists between two objects with the same velocity and opposite force direction. Newton was in fact proved Wren and Huygens hypothesises, and further improved the theory.

However, Robert Hooke who was an English philosopher. Purrington (2009) described the relationship between Hooke and Newton was like an enemy, because during that time Newton was against Hooke’s statement due to Newton got far more influence at the Royal Society of London. And also, Purrington (2009) shows that Hooke is the first person sated the inverse square law of gravity, I mean before Newton [22]. The inverse square law of gravity was based one the Newton’s third law of motion. However, Newton took the credit from Hooke, because he got more influence than Hooke at the Royal Society. As a result, Hooke’s gravitation theory influenced Newton, I will not talk about in this essay, because it belongs to the Newton’s astronomy area, but most of Newton’s astronomy achievements are based on his three laws of motion.

In conclusion, Newton was a well-known scientist. Not only he further improved someone ideas or statement but also he uses his statements applied to other subject areas. Firstly, Newton was through several experiments to re-implement other scientists’ experiments to verify their theories whether wrong or not. If their theories were wrong, Newton would correct it and then published on his book. Secondly, if their theories were correct, Newton would further develop his own theory, which means his will extend the “old” theories to the next “new” level. In other worlds, the new theories will represent other people’s vulnerability or weakness. Beyond his work in the physics of motion, he also did marvellous work in other areas, like mathematics, astronomy and optics. However, there has a dark-side of Newton, he did not recognize other people’s work because he got more power on the Royal Society. But we have to admire Newton was the most influential intellectual ever.

References:

[1] Mares, E. (2015). Newton’s Physics. Unpublished lecture notes, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.

[2] Jammer, M. (1957). Concepts of force: a study of dynamics. Harvard University Press: Cambridge.

[3] Kosman, L. A. (1969). Aristotle’s definition of motion. Phronesis: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy, 14(1), 40-40. doi:10.1163/156852869X00037

[4] Kragh, H., & Brush, S. G. (2001). Quantum generations: A history of physics in the twentieth century. American Journal of Physics, 69(4), 524. doi:10.1119/1.1351149

[5] Jean Buridan. (2001). In N. Schlager & J. Lauer (Eds.), Science and Its Times (Vol. 2). Detroit: Gale. Retrieved from http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/scic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?failOverType=&query=&prodId=SCIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&display-query=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&currPage=&disableHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=SCIC&action=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE%7CK2643410339&source=Bookmark&u=vuw&jsid=28ed40345907babc6203729dd7efb80f

[6] Trasancos, S. (2014). Fr.Jean Buridan and the Birth of Modern Science. Retrieved from http://www.integratedcatholiclife.org/2014/11/trasancos-buridan-birth-science/

[7] Mares, E. (2015). Galileo’s Physics. Unpublished lecture notes, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.

[8] Cardall, C., & Daunt, S. (n.d.). Galileo: the Telescope & the Law of Dynamics. Published lecture notes, University of Tennessee, USA. Retrieved from http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/galileo.html

[9] Bothun, G. D. (n.d.). From Galileo to Newton: Physics Emerge. Public lecture notes, University of Oregon, USA. Retrieved from http://zebu.uoregon.edu/disted/ph121/l3.html

[10] Slowik, E. (2013). Descartes’ Physics. Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/#4

[11] Bain, J. (n.d.). Descartes’ physics. Public lecture notes, New York University, USA. Retrieved from http://ls.poly.edu/~jbain/mms/handouts/mmsdescartesphysics.htm

[12] Descartes, R. (1664). The World or Treatise on Light. (Mahoney, M.S., Trans.). Princeton University, USA. Retireved from http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/descartes/world/worldfr.htm

[13] Hsieh, D.M. (2007). Descartes and Newton on Body. Retrieved from http://www.philosophyinaction.com/docs/danob.pdf

[14] Bennett, J. (2013). Descartes, Space and Body. Retrieved from http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdfs/newton1666.pdf

[15] Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. (2008). Edme Mariott. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830902825.html

[16] Cross, R. (2012). Edme Mariotte and Newton’s Cradle. The Physics Teacher, 50(4), 206-207. doi:10.1119/1.3694067

[17] Blackwell, R. J., & Huygen, C. (1977). Christiaan huygens’ the motion of colliding bodies. Isis, 68(4), 574-597. doi:10.1086/351876

[18] Rice Univeristy, USA. (2011). History of Momentum. Retrieved from http://www.google.co.nz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0CC4QFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aliefisd.net%2Fdownload.axd%3Ffile%3Df74edcff-cc2a-4f0c-9726-a9915d9b91fa%26dnldType%3DResource&ei=tZRNVbqtI-TKmwXsk4DIDg&usg=AFQjCNE9Uncxjn0eDIDhMPwKJCdPa2pQuw&sig2=9xJa1_rdY0IdiyzCS3539g&bvm=bv.92885102,d.dGY

[19] Dahmen, S. R. (2014). The mathematics and physics of diderot. I. on pendulums and air resistance.

[20] Elmes, J., 1782-1862. (1852). Sir Christopher Wren and his times. England, United Kingdom.

[21] Newton, I. (1687). The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. (Motte, A, Trans). Adelaide, Australia: University of Adelaide, eBooks@Adelaide.

[22] Purrington, R. D. (2009). The first professional scientist: Robert hooke and the royal society of London. Basel; Boston: Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-3-0346-0037-8